Health Disparities in New Zealand: A Literature Review

Health Disparities in New Zealand: A Literature Review Nateeh R. Cueva   Introduction Health is an integral part in the context of human existence. Each individual’s views regarding health and practices concerning healthcare vary depending on one’s historical, political and economic status, including the level of education, gender and personal experiences.[1] Hence, it is imperative to consider these aforementioned factors affecting health in the healthcare system. The principal objective of this paper is to review the specific historical, cultural, social, educational and economic backgrounds of the Maori people and each corresponding effects to healthcare approach. This paper also aims to investigate the imparity of the Maori and non-Maori health status. As several studies prove health disparities, this paper examines the actions taken to achieve equilibrium in healthcare service delivery among Maori and non-Maori people. Maori History and the Treaty of Waitangi New Zealand’s first east Polynesian settlers discovered the country during the 13th century, approximately 500 years before Europeans became aware of its existence.[2] The tribe is now known as Maori, meaning ‘original’, to characterize their distinction after the Europeans’ arrival. Due to lawlessness and the British government’s goal to protect trading interests, the Treaty of Waitangi was created and signed by several Maori chiefs and British Crown representatives. [3] The Treaty was translated into English and Maori versions containing three articles with substantial interpretation differences.[4] As explained by St. George (2013), the first article in the English version refers to sovereignty. It indicates transfer of power to the British Crown. However, Maori version conveys share of power. Maori used the term â€Å"kawanatanga†, which means setting up of British government without implicating transfer of authority. The second article chiefly safeguards property of rights, concerning â€Å"tino rangatiratanga† or chieftainship. Maori people are granted control and rights over their lands, woodlands, waters, fisheries and other properties in the English version. In contrast, Maori version denotes more extensive rights for Maori, including proprietary and reassurance of cultural and social items like language and villages. The third article warrants the Maori people equal rights as the British subjects. Regardless of the differences, the two versions of the Treaty are legitimate as they were both signed (St. George, 2013). Although protecting Maori health is part of the objectives of the Treaty, the population decline in the 1800’s proved past neglect on its principles. Basing on the data presented by Wishart (2012), Maori population went as low as 43,927 in 1886 while non-Maori migration constantly increased. The land wars between Maori and Pakeha (non-Maori) as well as the diseases introduced by the increasing migration had also caused devastating effects to Maori population (Durie, as cited in Kingi, 2007). After a major Maori protest, the Waitangi Tribunal was established in 1975 to investigate Crown breaches to the Treaty of Waitangi.[5] Its goal is to consider the principles of the Treaty upon making decisions rather than the mere conflicting interpretations of both English and Maori versions. This had led to compensation grants, return of lands and financial recompense to tribal authorities for economic development. Subsequently, the Maori population dramatically recovered to over half a million during the 20th century (St. George, 2013). St. George further elaborated that the Treaty has three key principles relating to Maori health: partnership, participation and protection. Partnership basically means working with Maori communities in developing strategic health care practices for the community. Participation is the act of involving the Maori people upon planning and during healthcare services delivery. Protection is ensuring equality on Maori and non-Maori health status while considering Maori cultural concepts, values, and practices. Culture and Impact on Health Culturally-based beliefs, values and attitude relating to health influence engagement to health-promoting activities and access to health services. As non-Maori population continuously surged, healthcare services became highly Pakeha-dominated.[6] This led Maori on becoming suspicious about health services rendered by hospitals because of cultural reasons. The Maori cultural health perspective is holistic. It comprises four cornerstones of health: wairua (spiritual), hinengaro (psychological), tinana (physical) and whà ¤nau (extended family).[7] Maori’s concepts of tapu (sacred, restricted) and noa (free from tapu or unrestricted), the basis of law and order during pre-European time, interrelate with today’s Maori health environment. In terms of daily activities, this entails that food (noa) should be placed separately from bodily functions like faeces (tapu). Practices and healthcare services that do not mirror these cultural concepts receive lesser support and often distress the Maori community. As Maori slowly embrace Pakeha-predominated health services, traditional Maori health practices largely remained (Lange, 2012). These health practices, though helpful in some cases, oftentimes risk patient safety and jeopardize medical treatment when opposed or delayed in consideration to cultural beliefs. Maori Socioeconomic Status and Health Socioeconomic status, basing on aspects such as income, education and occupation, is a fundamental element of health. Studies prove that favourable living condition is closely relevant to better health quality.[8] Health disparity can be brought about by material poverty, poor nutrition, mediocre housing standards and stress resulting from low social and economic status. Health services fees further hinder medical treatment access. Statistics New Zealand (as cited in Marie, Fergusson Boden, 2010) supports well documented studies proving that Maori are at greater socioeconomic disadvantage than any New Zealanders by ethnicity. This socioeconomic deprivation likely predisposes Maori to poor health conditions and limit healthcare access. Health Disparity and Inequality Regardless of the efforts to apply the Principles of the Treaty to health development, health inequality and disproportion among Maori and non-Maori is still evident. Studies prove that Maori are underprivileged in terms of health among any New Zealand ethnic groups, showing higher morbidity and mortality rates.[9] Blakely, Fawcett, Atkinson, Tobias and Cheung (as cited in St. George, 2013) stated that Maori infants have lower birth weight and die more frequently from sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) than non-Maori. Brown (as cited in St. George, 2013) also added that Maori die eight to ten years earlier, on average, with avoidable death rates twice as much compared to non-Maori. New Zealand’s cancer death rate is greater than Australia, consisting of two thirds male Maori and one quarter Maori female deaths (Skegg and McCredie, as cited in St. George, 2013). Obesity in Maori community is also of greater proportion, contributing to higher rates of diabetes (Ministry of Heal th, as cited in St. George, 2013). These data show that Maori are more susceptible to illnesses and their lesser access to health services is detrimental. According to Durie (as cited in St. George, 2013), the suboptimal Maori health status pose negative effects on the community’s outlook of the healthcare system as a whole. This may lead to stereotyping healthcare system basing on their less suitable health situations and experiences. Studies further claimed Maori being treated differently in the healthcare setting. As per findings of the 2001—02 National Primary Medical Care Survey (as cited in St. George, 2013), doctors spent only 2 minutes out of 12 minute consultation time or 17% less time on caring for Maori than non-Maori patients. Racism also affects Maori health status (Harris, as cited in St. George, 2013), suggesting that the greater the number of racial discrimination experiences, Maori self perceived health status becomes lesser. Maori Health Development and Addressing Inequalities During the 20th century, eliminating inequalities became a considerable section of government health policy and statutory obligation of district health boards (Pollock, 2012). Social welfare policies and intersectoral activities promoting health equality such as retrofitting and housing insulation were implemented. The New Zealand Public Health and Disability Act 2000 absolves the Treaty of Waitangi and Maori health (Blakely Simmers, 2011). Health programmes and healthcare service delivery focus on Maori and low socioeconomic people. Constant monitoring on health inequalities and research conduction allowed better understanding of health disparities and progress tracking. The increasing awareness on health inequalities concerning Maori people paved way to more improved funding on health services addressing deprivation and ethnicity. As a result, immunization rates soared, smoking cessation rates increased and improved Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular risk management.[10] The policies relevant to health equity strongly develop Maori health status and healthcare service access. Conclusion Health is indeed affected by several determining factors that can enhance or diminish quality of life. Historical, political, cultural, educational and socioeconomic backgrounds are crucial aspects to consider in delivering effective health services that support health equality. Looking into the health disparities affecting Maori people, it is unacceptable in the context of medical practice to provide partial health services basing on individual’s ethnicity, cultural beliefs, values and economic status. While it is a fact that traditional practices can hinder medical treatment and healthcare goal achievement, better ways and policies should be implemented to meet the greater Maori health needs. The Maori culture, being the first settlers in New Zealand, has become an indispensable component of the country’s society. For Maori to live longer, achieve healthier lives and contribute to the society at their utmost potential, the root causes of inequalities ought to be rightfully addressed. In the same manner, may the past mistakes and neglect be a grounding lesson to further strengthen the efforts to eliminate health disparities. May impartial health services prevail and be maintained for Maori, non-Maori and other ethnicity of different backgrounds alike. References Blakely, T., Simmers, D. (2011). Fact and action sheets on health inequalities. New Zealand Medical Association. Retrieved from http://www.nzma.org.nz/sites/all/files/Marmot_factsheets.pdf Capital and Coast District Health Board. (2009). Tikanga Mà ¤ori: A guide for healthcare workers. Retrieved from http://www.ccdhb.org.nz/news/Tikanga Maori.pdf Derby, M. (2012). Waitangi tribunal – te rÃ…Â pÃ…Â « whakamana. Te, Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, 1-6. Retrieved from http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/waitangi-tribunal-te-ropu- whakamana/page-1 Kingi, T. R. (2007). The treaty of Waitangi: A framework for MÄ ori health development. New Zealand Journal of Occupational Therapy, 54(1), 4-10. Retrieved from http://www.nzaot.com/downloads/contribute/TheTreatyofWaitangiAFrameworkforMaoriHealth.pdf Lange, R. (2014). Te hauora MÄ ori i mua – history of MÄ ori health Pre-European health. Te, Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, 1-6. Retrieved from http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/te-hauora-maori-i-mua-history-of-maori-health/page-1 Marie D., Fergusson, D.M., Boden, J.M. (2010). Does socio-economic inequality explain ethnic differences in nicotine dependence? Evidence from a New Zealand birth cohort. Australian New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, (44), 378-383. Retrieved from http://www.otago.ac.nz/christchurch/otago014477.pdf Meredith, P., Higgins, R. (2012). KÄ wanatanga – MÄ ori engagement with the state: Defining kÄ wanatanga. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, 1-5. Retrieved from http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/kawanatanga-maori-engagement-with-the-state Health Promotion Forum of New Zealand. (2002). TUHA–NZ: A treaty understanding of Hauora in Aotearoa-New Zealand. Retrieved from http://www.hauora.co.nz/assets/files/Maori/Tuhanzpdf.pdf New Zealand History. (2012). Differences between the texts: Read the treaty. Retrieved from http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/treaty/read-the-Treaty/differences-between-the-texts New Zealand History. (2012). Signing the treaty. Retrieved from http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/treaty/making-the-treaty/signing-the-treaty Pollock, K. (2012). Health and society: Socio-economic status, ethnicity and health inequality. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, 1-5. Retrieved from http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/health-and-society St. George, I. (Ed.). (2013). Cole’s medical practice in New Zealand. New Zealand: Medical Council of New Zealand. Wilson, J. (2013). MÄ ori arrival and settlement. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, 1-7. Retrieved from http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/history/ Wishart, I. (2012). Waitangi researcher asked to lie by government agency. Investigate Daily. Retrieved from http://www.investigatemagazine.co.nz/Investigate/2717/waitangi- researcher-asked-to-lie-by-govt-agency/?doing_wp_cron=1401700328.4694170951843261718750 Glossary Hinengaro the mental health Kawanatanga governorship PÄ kehÄ  – non-Moari, usually of British ethnic origin Tinana the physical health Tino rangatiratanga absolute sovereignty Wairua the spiritual health Whà ¤nau extended family [1] Health Promotion Forum of New Zealand. (2002). TUHA–NZ: A treaty understanding of Hauora in Aotearoa-New Zealand. Retrieved from http://www.hauora.co.nz/assets/files/Maori/Tuhanzpdf.pdf [2] Wilson, J. (2013). MÄ ori arrival and settlement. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, 1-7. Retrieved from http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/history/ [3] New Zealand History. (2012). Signing the treaty. Retrieved from http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/treaty/making-the-treaty/signing-the-treaty [4] New Zealand History. (2012). Differences between the texts: Read the treaty. Retrieved from http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/treaty/read-the-Treaty/differences-between-the-texts [5] Derby, M. (2012). Waitangi tribunal – te rÃ…Â pÃ…Â « whakamana. Te, Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, 1-6. Retrieved from http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/waitangi-tribunal-te-ropu-whakamana/page-1 [6] Lange, R. (2014). Te hauora MÄ ori i mua – history of MÄ ori health Pre-European health. Te, Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, 1-6. Retrieved from http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/te-hauora-maori-i-mua-history-of-maori-health/page-1 [7] Capital and Coast District Health Board. (2009). Tikanga Mà ¤ori: A guide for healthcare workers. Retrieved from http://www.ccdhb.org.nz/news/Tikanga Maori.pdf [8] Pollock, K. (2012). Health and society: Socio-economic status, ethnicity and health inequality. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, 1-5. Retrieved from http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/health-and-society/page-2 [9] St. George, I. (Ed.). (2013). Cole’s medical practice in New Zealand. New Zealand: Medical Council of New Zealand. [10] Blakely, T., Simmers, D. (2011). Fact and action sheets on health inequalities. New Zealand Medical Association. Retrieved from http://www.nzma.org.nz/sites/all/files/Marmot_factsheets.pdf

School Law Class

The office of a school superintendent, must work hand in hand with other associations and other principals in order to develop good system for the evaluation of the teacher and the principal. This will also include the measures put in place for the growth of the students. There should be a common agreement of a good definition of an effective teacher, an effective principal as well as the way a student growth shall be measured in the whole country. (Dimmock and Donoghue, 1997). Moreover, a good amount of the teacher and the principal evaluation systems must include how the students’ academic growth will be measured. To close the gap which is available in the achievement, it would be appropriate to ensure that the teachers and the principals are the first to support so that they can address the needs of the students in the classrooms and in various schools. This should be then evaluated and the teachers held responsible for the academic growth of every student. To ensure that the process of negotiations between the school board, the school employees and the superintendents of the schools runs smoothly the superintendents have to work closely with the teachers unions. The unions are known to be most powerful yet the least considered when negotiating the public education issues in the current world. Despite the attention of the public focusing mainly on the influence the national unions have, policies that affect most schools and the teachers are negotiated by the local unions and the school boards. The local union leaders however focus the balance between the competing interests as well as the obligations. This is mainly based on the concern and the priorities of their members in the union to the state pressures as well as the affiliates at the national level. These union leaders confirm the agenda of the union and in addition, they advocate for the expanded agenda of the teachers’ profession. They also advocate for communal bargaining and management of the contract. (Dimmock and Donoghue, 1997). Many schools are facing the problem of failed school bond issues. This is mainly in the mid-sized rural schools districts. This leads to the organization of the school to hold school bond elections. The strategic plans of the schools mirror many of the recommendations for successful bond referendums. This leads to the illustration of why many schools pass the bond issues with a unique support from the community. However, findings from one school cannot match with the concerns that are available in all the communities. (Dimmock and Donoghue, 1997). If the funding is not secured, the leaders of the schools should be provided with voter input from the rural school districts. This will be a successful effort to overcome the problem of unsecured funding. The school demonstrates that it complies with Title IX through the continued efforts to add new sporting activities for women. The school also ensures that it has met the proportionality required by having a balance between the male and female students taking part in the sporting activities. This is in relation to the general population of the school. The school also ensures that nit has met the interests and the abilities of their female counter parts. To change the school compliance to the Title IX, a survey could be conducted that would help to measure the students’ interests and the abilities. (Dimmock and Donoghue, 1997). The steps taken to learn the parameters in a state would include acquiring a specialty like reading as it will provide the teacher with a competitive edge in the job. Also one has to be flexible in order to fix the needs of the students. The teacher should have a daily plan but should be flexible as much as possible in order to make adjustments where possible. Having a rigid plan may not be easy to be adapted in a diverse class. A balance should be maintained between the individual instruction and the whole class instruction. More to this, one should consider joining a professional association and also to obtain advanced credentials to understand the laws well. (Dimmock and Donoghue, 1997). The benefits and drawbacks of relying on digital communication to send information to board members, the community members and the school staff is that it enables effective communication to take place as one must have effective skills to express him not only in the paper and the pen but also through other means such as audio and video. It is also possible to analyze data as one chooses the data that is available on the web based format as well as in other electronic formats. However this may be challenging when it comes to problem solving as the people have to know how they can apply what they know and what they can to new situations in the on line communication. There are many risks in the use of digital communication that may affect the quality of communication in the 21st century. These are mainly based on the security and safety of the communication. Dimmock and Donoghue, 1997). The teachers have to be active in providing the students with protection against contagious infections. This could be achieved by providing a safe environment. The teachers therefore have to be concerned about the safety and health of their students. These includes bullying whereby some students especially those with disabilities will be targeted by others. (Dimmock and Donoghue, 1997). This may be in form of aggression, abuses, use of threats or psychological abuse. In addition, the students have to be protected against homophobia. Other protection may be in riding in the school buses, cyber cafe protection having video surveillance in the schools among others. The relationship between the schools and the local police and other departments is that each works independently and there is no cooperation in undertaking their functions in the community. Helping the students learn and improving the quality of education is one of the main priorities of many school districts. This can only be achieved by having an effective working relationship. (Dimmock and Donoghue, 1997). This mainly begins by having a clear commitment that will help to discover the community’s assets and capabilities. This relationship requires the cooperation of the schools with many sectors. This process involves public inquiry and the community members who participate in the inquiry increases the quality of beliefs, ideas and actions that develops. The school should ensure that it has a written and prevention and mitigation plan. This plan consists of the strategies to keep bad things from happening in the school and it clearly outlines how the impacts of the negative impacts that could not be avoided be minimized or mitigated. The school should also have preparedness plan to help the students and the teachers to respond to some forms of crisis. To ensure the safety of the students at security crisis, various measures could be put in place which includes raising adequate money for the management of the security department involves evaluating and updating the school safety plan as often as possible. The school staff should receive trainings regularly on how to ensure that the students are safe. The school should develop an efficient safety plan for the students and include a security consultant if necessary when designing the school safety plan. The school can also partner with the law enforcers to identify possible threats that could pose security concerns to the students. Therefore security hazard analysis would be vital. (Dimmock and Donoghue, 1997).

Continuing My Education

Running Head: Continuing My Education1 Why Continuing My Education Is Important To Me Carla Conley English Composition I Professor Victoria Stamm October 29, 2010 Continuing My Education2 Returning to school for me at this point of time in my life is very important. I have quite of few things I want to accomplish in life, and one definite thing is receiving my degree. I now work for a large health insurance company, which has many good paying jobs, but unfortunately, I do not have the education or qualifications for these positions.Therefore, my first reason to receiving my degree is to get a promotion. I do not want to be stuck in the same position that I am in now even though it is kind of challenging. I would like to be promoted to something more that I will enjoy doing. Please understand I am glad to have a job, but I would like to earn more money. I think by receiving my degree I can make much more money. In addition, this will help me to gain additional training to help me in m y position that I am in now. Taking a couple of classes at Ashford University has made more alert and organized.Therefore, gaining more education is a plus for me, because I will be more knowledgeable, and be able to get the career I want. In addition, it will make me more self-assured, and keep me ahead of the game for when my daughter starts grade school. These days’ children are being taught college courses, and I have to be smart enough to help her. I think it is wonderful to get all the education I can to help to help me to proceed better on my job. I am going to school for Health and Human Services, so that that will definitely be a career change for me.This is something that I have been interested in for a while. I am extremely excited that I am able to take two courses in one. Many schools do not offer both Health and Human Services for one major. As a result, I feel that I am accomplishing two goals at once. Continuing My Education3 Even though I want to accomplish r eceiving my degree for professional reasons, I do have personal reasons too. One is self-improvement. This will make me feel that I can do anything in life once I receive my degree. See I have a best friend from school; I still stay in touch with, and her name is Tia.She is another reason I am going back to school. After graduating from college, she was able to find a good career, and buy a beautiful house. She was a single mother with two children doing all of this. In addition, I see people who are older than I am going back to college. That is a motivator for me. Especially since, I have put it off for so long. Although, I am excited about starting school again, it still has not been a joy ride for me. I have to admit that I am really struggling doing my assignments.I find myself procrastinating quite a bit. I tell myself that I am going to stop doing this, but I seem to be stuck on these assignments. I am really struggling with these writing assignments. I would not mind writing if there were not so many guidelines to follow. I just hope that I am able to continue my education and do not get frustrated with these assignments coming up. Unfortunately, I know this is not going to get easier. As a result, I have to stop putting things off, have better time management, organization, and better studying skills.Again, I cannot express how important it is for me to enhance my education. I am not a dumb person, but I think I can be even smarter by going back to school. I have great common sense. Therefore, with gaining more education I think I will be a genius in my own world. Another reason for furthering my education is to be the first to receive my degree in my family. Continuing My Education4 Quite of few of us have been going to school for a while, but we quit. Consequently, I hope by receiving my degree this will make some of my family embers want to go ahead and get their degree. In addition, I want to be an inspiration for my daughter. I know many of times I hear parents tell their children that furthering their education is important, but they do not have a degree their-selves. When a child sees that, he or she is not inspired as much to further their education. I was determined not to let that stop me though from going back to school, because no one else has any degree in my family. Thus, I think it is important to have that degree under my belt.I have to remember whatever is going on in my life I have to accomplish this goal this time around. I cannot keep coming up with excuses. If I do not finish this time I will never finish. In addition, you are never too old to accomplish anything in life. Life is short, so I have made the best of it and try to accomplish as many goals as I can. I hope that when I graduate and receive my degree I can write a complete paper about fulfilling my goal. Continuing My Education5References Sole, K. (2010). Essentials of College Writing. Retrieved from https://content. ashford. edu/AUENG121. 10. 1

The National Alliance For End Homelessness Essay - 2163 Words

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